Sex Differences in Motor Coordination, Fundamental Motor Skills, and Self-Confidence Among Primary School Children: A Multivariate Analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31851/hon.v9i2.22740Abstract
Motor development comprises several domains that may not show the same sex-related pattern. This study examined sex differences in motor coordination, fundamental motor skills (FMS), and self-confidence among primary school children. A cross-sectional design was used with 220 students aged 9 to <12 years in Padang, Indonesia (114 boys, 106 girls). Motor coordination was measured with the KTK3+, FMS with the Test of Gross Motor Development–Second Edition (TGMD-2), and self-confidence in physical education with a 40-item questionnaire developed by the researchers. Data were analysed using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) followed by univariate tests at α = .05. A significant multivariate difference emerged between sexes (Wilks' Λ = .899, F(3, 216) = 8.07, p < .001, η²p = .10). Follow-up tests showed that the difference was driven by motor coordination (boys higher than girls, d = 0.62), whereas FMS and self-confidence did not differ significantly. The three constructs were also not meaningfully correlated (|r| ≤ .07). These findings indicate that sex-related differences in motor development are domain-specific. Multidimensional assessment of motor coordination and FMS is therefore needed to identify children's movement-learning needs in primary schools.
References
Bakhtiar, S., Famelia, R., Syahputra, R., Oktavianus, I., & Goodway, J. (2020). Developing a Motor Skill-Based Curriculum for Preschools and Kindergartens as a Preventive Plan for Children With Obesity in Indonesia. 21(Icsshpe 2019), 106–110. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200824.065
Bakhtiar, S., Syahputra, R., Putri, L. P., Mardiansyah, A., Atradinal, Hendrayana, A. A., Afrian, H., Mardela, R., & Pion, J. (2023). Sports talent profile of 7-12 years old: Preliminary study of talent identification in Indonesia. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 23(12), 3167–3177. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2023.12361
Bardid, F., Vannozzi, G., Logan, S. W., Hardy, L. L., & Barnett, L. M. (2019). A hitchhiker’s guide to assessing young people’s motor competence: Deciding what method to use. In Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport (Vol. 22, Number 3, pp. 311–318). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.08.007
Barnett, L. M., Webster, E. K., Hulteen, R. M., De Meester, A., Valentini, N. C., Lenoir, M., Pesce, C., Getchell, N., Lopes, V. P., Robinson, L. E., Brian, A., & Rodrigues, L. P. (2022). Through the Looking Glass: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Evidence, Providing New Insight for Motor Competence and Health. In Sports Medicine (Vol. 52, Number 4, pp. 875–920). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01516-8
Blanca, M. J., Alarcón, R., Arnau, J., Bono, R., & Bendayan, R. (2017). Datos no normales: ¿es el ANOVA una opción válida? Psicothema, 29(4), 552–557. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.383
Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best Practices for Developing and Validating Scales for Health, Social, and Behavioral Research: A Primer. In Frontiers in Public Health (Vol. 6). Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
Bolger, L. E., Bolger, L. A., O’Neill, C., Coughlan, E., O’Brien, W., Lacey, S., Burns, C., & Bardid, F. (2021). Global levels of fundamental motor skills in children: A systematic review. In Journal of Sports Sciences (Vol. 39, Number 7, pp. 717–753). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1841405
Bremer, E., & Cairney, J. (2018). Fundamental Movement Skills and Health-Related Outcomes: A Narrative Review of Longitudinal and Intervention Studies Targeting Typically Developing Children. In American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine (Vol. 12, Number 2, pp. 148–159). SAGE Publications Inc. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827616640196
Burton, A. M., Cowburn, I., Eisenmann, J. C., Sawczuk, T., Watson, T., McDermott, J., & Till, K. (2025). Motor Competence, Physical Fitness, Psychosocial, and Physical Activity Characteristics in 9- to 14-Year-Olds: Sex Differences and Age and Maturity Considerations. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 96(1), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2024.2381800
Cairney, J., Dudley, D., Kwan, M., Bulten, R., & Kriellaars, D. (2019). Physical Literacy, Physical Activity and Health: Toward an Evidence-Informed Conceptual Model. In Sports Medicine (Vol. 49, Number 3, pp. 371–383). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01063-3
Coppens, E., Laureys, F., Mostaert, M., D’Hondt, E., Deconinck, F. J. A., & Lenoir, M. (2021). Validation of a Motor Competence Assessment Tool for Children and Adolescents (KTK3+) With Normative Values for 6- to 19-Year-Olds. Frontiers in Physiology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.652952
De Meester, A., Barnett, L. M., Brian, A., Bowe, S. J., Jiménez-Díaz, J., Van Duyse, F., Irwin, J. M., Stodden, D. F., D’Hondt, E., Lenoir, M., & Haerens, L. (2020). The Relationship Between Actual and Perceived Motor Competence in Children, Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. In Sports Medicine (Vol. 50, Number 11, pp. 2001–2049). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01336-2
Estevan, I., Bardid, F., Utesch, T., Menescardi, C., Barnett, L. M., & Castillo, I. (2021). Examining early adolescents’ motivation for physical education: associations with actual and perceived motor competence. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 26(4), 359–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2020.1806995
Estevan, I., & Barnett, L. M. (2018). Considerations Related to the Definition, Measurement and Analysis of Perceived Motor Competence. Sports Medicine, 48(12), 2685–2694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0940-2
Faber, I., Zamoscinska, M., Teunissen, J. W., & Pion, J. (2020). The relationship between sport-specific training and a perceptuo-motor skills assessment as part of talent identification in young table tennis players (8-10 years). International Journal of Racket Sports Science, 2(1), 42–54. https://doi.org/10.30827/digibug.63720
Famelia, R., Tsuda, E., Bakhtiar, S., & Goodway, J. D. (2018). Relationships among perceived and actual motor skill competence and physical activity in Indonesian preschoolers. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 6. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2016-0072
Hulteen, R. M., Lander, N. J., Morgan, P. J., Barnett, L. M., Robertson, S. J., & Lubans, D. R. (2015). Validity and Reliability of Field-Based Measures for Assessing Movement Skill Competency in Lifelong Physical Activities: A Systematic Review. Sports Medicine, 45(10), 1443–1454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0357-0
Hulteen, R. M., Morgan, P. J., Barnett, L. M., Stodden, D. F., & Lubans, D. R. (2018). Development of Foundational Movement Skills: A Conceptual Model for Physical Activity Across the Lifespan. Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1533–1540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0892-6
Hulteen, R. M., Smith, J. J., Morgan, P. J., Barnett, L. M., Hallal, P. C., Colyvas, K., & Lubans, D. R. (2017). Global participation in sport and leisure-time physical activities: A systematic review and meta-analysis. In Preventive Medicine (Vol. 95, pp. 14–25). Academic Press Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.11.027
Johnston, K., Wattie, N., Schorer, J., & Baker, J. (2018). Talent Identification in Sport: A Systematic Review. Sports Medicine, 48(1), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0803-2
Jones, D., Innerd, A., Giles, E. L., & Azevedo, L. B. (2020). Association between fundamental motor skills and physical activity in the early years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. In Journal of Sport and Health Science (Vol. 9, Number 6, pp. 542–552). Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.03.001
Kokštejn, J., Musálek, M., & Tufano, J. J. (2017). Are sex differences in fundamental motor skills uniform throughout the entire preschool period? PLoS ONE, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176556
Logan, S. W., Barnett, L. M., Goodway, J. D., & Stodden, D. F. (2017). Comparison of performance on process- and product-oriented assessments of fundamental motor skills across childhood. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(7). https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1183803
Logan, S. W., Ross, S. M., Chee, K., Stodden, D. F., & Robinson, L. E. (2018). Fundamental motor skills: A systematic review of terminology. Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(7), 781–796. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1340660
Lorenzo-Martínez, M., Abelairas-Gómez, C., Carballo-Fazanes, A., & Rey, E. (2025). Prevalence of fundamental movement skill mastery in school-aged children and adolescents: a systematic review. In BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine (Vol. 11, Number 4). BMJ Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002439
Luz, C., Rodrigues, L. P., De Meester, A., & Cordovil, R. (2017). The relationship between motor competence and health-related fitness in children and adolescents. PLoS ONE, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179993
Malina, R. M., Cumming, S. P., Rogol, A. D., Coelho-e-Silva, M. J., Figueiredo, A. J., Konarski, J. M., & Kozieł, S. M. (2019). Bio-Banding in Youth Sports: Background, Concept, and Application. Sports Medicine, 49(11), 1671–1685. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01166-x
Mardiansyah, A., Bakhtiar, S., Syafruddin, S., Syahputra, R., Putri, L. P., Atradinal, A., Mardela, R., Afrian, H., & Pion, J. (2024). Motor coordination in relation to weight status and age in primary school children in Indonesia. Retos, 57, 72–79.
Mardiansyah, A., Syafruddin, M., & Bakhtiar, S. (2023). Assessment of motor competence in Indonesian elementary school children using the Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder (KTK3+). Journal of Physical Education & Sport, 23(10), 2632–2641. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2023.10301
Martins, C., Webster, E. K., Romo-Perez, V., Duncan, M., Lemos, L. F., Staiano, A., Okely, A., Magistro, D., Carlevaro, F., Bardid, F., Magno, F., Nobre, G., Estevan, I., Mota, J., Ning, K., Robinson, L. E., Lenoir, M., Quan, M., Valentini, N., … Barnett, L. M. (2024). Sex differences in 3- to 5-year-old children’s motor competence: A pooled cross-sectional analysis of 6241 children. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 34(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14651
Mostaert, M., Vansteenkiste, P., Laureys, F., Rommers, N., Pion, J., Deconinck, F. J. A., & Lenoir, M. (2022). Is Motor Coordination the Key to Success in Youth Cycling? International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 17(10), 1489–1498. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2021-0539
Nagy, Á. V., Márta Wilhelm, Domokos, M., Ferenc Gy˝ori, & Tamás Berki. (2023). Assessment Tools Measuring Fundamental Movement Skills of Primary School Children: A Narrative Review in Methodological Perspective.
Pullen, B. J., Oliver, J. L., Lloyd, R. S., & Knight, C. J. (2022). Relationships between Athletic Motor Skill Competencies and Maturity, Sex, Physical Performance, and Psychological Constructs in Boys and Girls. Children, 9(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/children9030375
Putri, L. P., Syahputra, R., Afrian, H., Naldi, J., & Bakhtiar, S. (2026). Assessing Fundamental Motor Skills And Sex Across Different Age Groups of Elementary School-Aged Children. Halaman Olahraga Nusantara, 9(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.31851/hon.v9i1.20115
Syahputra, R., Tomoliyus, T., Sugiyanto Sugiyanto, F., Bakhtiar, S., Ockta, Y., Pratama Putri, L., Afrian, H., & Jeprinaldi, J. (2025). The impact of talent detection on increasing the number of children participating in sports. Retos, 62, 2025. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v62.111266
Till, K., & Baker, J. (2020). Challenges and [Possible] Solutions to Optimizing Talent Identification and Development in Sport. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(April), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00664
Tsuda, E., Goodway, J. D., Famelia, R., & Brian, A. (2020). Relationship Between Fundamental Motor Skill Competence, Perceived Physical Competence and Free-Play Physical Activity in Children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 91(1), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2019.1646851
Ulrich, D. A. (2000). TGMD-2,Test of Gross Motor Development Second Edition - Examiner’s Manual (2nd Edition). Pro-Ed.
Utesch, T., Bardid, F., Büsch, D., & Strauss, B. (2019). The Relationship Between Motor Competence and Physical Fitness from Early Childhood to Early Adulthood: A Meta-Analysis. In Sports Medicine (Vol. 49, Number 4, pp. 541–551). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01068-y
Wick, K., Leeger-Aschmann, C. S., Monn, N. D., Radtke, T., Ott, L. V., Rebholz, C. E., Cruz, S., Gerber, N., Schmutz, E. A., Puder, J. J., Munsch, S., Kakebeeke, T. H., Jenni, O. G., Granacher, U., & Kriemler, S. (2017). Interventions to Promote Fundamental Movement Skills in Childcare and Kindergarten: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. In Sports Medicine (Vol. 47, Number 10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0723-1
Zheng, Y., Ye, W., Korivi, M., Liu, Y., & Hong, F. (2022). Gender Differences in Fundamental Motor Skills Proficiency in Children Aged 3–6 Years: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Vol. 19, Number 14). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148318
Downloads
Additional Files
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Lucy Pratama Putri, Risky Syahputra, Heru Afrian, Uswatul Hasanah Umar, Devaron Suardi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
1. License
Use of articles will be governed by the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike license as currently displayed on Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-SA)
The author warrants that the article is original, written by stated author(s), has not been published before, contains no unlawful statements, does not infringe the rights of others, is subject to copyright that is vested exclusively in the author and free of any third party rights, and that any necessary written permissions to quote from other sources have been obtained by the author(s).
Halaman Olahraga Nusantara's spirit is to disseminate articles published are as free as possible. Under the Creative Commons license, Halaman Olahraga Nusantara permits users to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work. Users will also need to attribute authors and Halaman Olahraga Nusantara on distributing works in the journal and other media of publications.
4. Rights of Authors
Authors retain all their rights to the published works, such as (but not limited to) the following rights;
1. Copyright and other proprietary rights relating to the article, such as patent rights,
2. The right to use the substance of the article in own future works, including lectures and books,
3. The right to reproduce the article for own purposes,
4. The right to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the article's published version (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal Halaman Olahraga Nusantara.
5. Co-Authorship
If the article was jointly prepared by more than one author, any authors submitting the manuscript warrants that he/she has been authorized by all co-authors to be agreed on this copyright and license notice (agreement) on their behalf, and agrees to inform his/her co-authors of the terms of this policy. Halaman Olahraga Nusantara will not be held liable for anything that may arise due to the author(s) internal dispute. Halaman Olahraga Nusantara will only communicate with the corresponding author.
6. Royalties
Being an open accessed journal and disseminating articles for free under the Creative Commons license term mentioned, author(s) aware that Halaman Olahraga Nusantara entitles the author(s) to no royalties or other fees.
